CHAPTER 22

CHAPTER 22. CASES 

1. Malaria 

Definition:
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites (Plasmodium species), transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. 

Causes: 

• Bite from infected mosquito 

• Living or sleeping in mosquito-infested areas 

• Poor sanitation or stagnant water near homes 

Symptoms: 

• Fever and chills 

• Sweating 

• Headache 

• Muscle pain 

• Nausea or vomiting 

Prevention: 

• Use insecticide-treated mosquito nets 

• Spray mosquito repellents 

• Clear stagnant water around the home 

• Take antimalarial medication when traveling to high-risk areas 

Primary Treatment: 

• Administer antimalarial drugs as prescribed 

• Give paracetamol for fever 

• Ensure hydration 

• Refer to hospital if symptoms persist or worsen 

2. Typhoid Fever 

Definition:
Typhoid is a bacterial infection caused by Salmonella typhi, usually spread through contaminated food or water. 

Causes: 

• Drinking or eating contaminated water or food 

• Poor hand hygiene 

• Poor sanitation 

Symptoms: 

• High, prolonged fever 

• Abdominal pain 

• Diarrhea or constipation 

• Weakness 

• Loss of appetite 

Prevention: 

• Boil drinking water 

• Wash hands regularly 

• Avoid eating food from unhygienic sources 

• Proper waste disposal 

Primary Treatment: 

• Oral rehydration 

• Start antibiotics (as prescribed by a doctor) 

• Monitor temperature 

• Refer severe cases to the hospital 

3. Labour Case (Childbirth) 

Definition:
Labour is the process of childbirth, involving regular contractions of the uterus to deliver a baby. 

Causes: 

• Natural completion of pregnancy (usually at 37–42 weeks) 

• Hormonal changes in the body 

Symptoms: 

• Regular uterine contractions 

• Lower back pain 

• Water breaking 

• Bloody discharge 

• Cervical dilation 

Prevention: 

• Cannot be prevented (normal biological process), but complications can be reduced by attending antenatal care. 

Primary Treatment: 

• Assist the woman in a clean, quiet environment 

• Monitor contractions and fetal heartbeat 

• Prepare for delivery or refer to hospital immediately if complications arise 

4. Road Traffic Accident (RTA) 

Definition:
An RTA refers to any injury sustained due to a collision involving vehicles or pedestrians on the road. 

Causes: 

• Speeding or reckless driving 

• Driving under the influence 

• Poor road conditions 

Symptoms: 

• Bleeding 

• Fractures or broken bones 

• Unconsciousness 

• Chest or abdominal injuries 

Prevention: 

• Obey traffic laws 

• Use seat belts and helmets 

• Avoid driving when tired or drunk 

Primary Treatment: 

• Ensure scene is safe 

• Stop bleeding with pressure 

• Immobilize broken bones 

• Check airway, breathing, and circulation 

• Call emergency services 

5. Miscarriage 

Definition:
Miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy before the 20th week. 

Causes: 

• Chromosomal abnormalities 

• Infections 

• Hormonal problems 

• Physical trauma 

Symptoms: 

• Vaginal bleeding 

• Abdominal cramps 

• Passing of tissue 

• Loss of pregnancy symptoms 

Prevention: 

• Regular antenatal check-ups 

• Avoid harmful substances (alcohol, smoking) 

• Manage chronic conditions like diabetes 

Primary Treatment: 

• Provide emotional support 

• Monitor bleeding 

• Refer to hospital for proper care and evacuation if needed 

6. Dilation and Curettage (D&C) 

Definition:
A minor surgical procedure to remove tissue from the uterus, often after a miscarriage or for diagnosis. 

Causes/Indications: 

• Incomplete miscarriage 

• Heavy bleeding 

• Diagnosis of uterine issues 

Symptoms (Post-procedure): 

• Mild cramps 

• Light bleeding 

• Fatigue 

Prevention of complications: 

• Sterile environment 

• Proper preoperative assessment 

Primary Treatment: 

• Monitor bleeding 

• Give antibiotics if ordered 

• Encourage rest 

• Watch for signs of infection 

7. Infection 

Definition:
An infection occurs when harmful organisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi) enter the body and multiply. 

Causes: 

• Poor hygiene 

• Contaminated wounds 

• Exposure to infected persons 

Symptoms: 

• Fever 

• Redness or swelling at infection site 

• Pus or discharge 

• Pain 

Prevention: 

• Handwashing 

• Clean wounds properly 

• Use sterilized equipment 

Primary Treatment: 

• Clean affected area 

• Start antibiotics (if prescribed) 

• Monitor for worsening signs 

• Refer severe cases 

8. Insomnia 

Definition:
Insomnia is difficulty falling or staying asleep. 

Causes: 

• Stress or anxiety 

• Illness or pain 

• Poor sleep habits 

• Use of stimulants (caffeine, alcohol) 

Symptoms: 

• Trouble sleeping 

• Fatigue 

• Irritability 

• Poor concentration 

Prevention: 

• Regular sleep schedule 

• Avoid caffeine before bed 

• Create a calm sleeping environment 

Primary Treatment: 

• Encourage relaxation techniques 

• Avoid screen time before sleep 

• Refer to doctor if chronic 

9. Pale (Pallor/Anemia) 

Definition:
Pallor is a paleness of the skin, often due to anemia (low red blood cell count). 

Causes: 

• Iron deficiency 

• Blood loss 

• Chronic diseases 

Symptoms: 

• Pale skin and lips 

• Fatigue 

• Dizziness 

• Shortness of breath 

Prevention: 

• Eat iron-rich foods (e.g., leafy greens, meat) 

• Treat infections promptly 

• Iron supplements when needed 

Primary Treatment: 

• Check vital signs 

• Encourage iron-rich diet 

• Refer for blood tests and treatment 

10. Abdominal Pain 

Definition:
Discomfort or pain in the stomach or belly area, often a symptom of another illness. 

Causes: 

• Infections 

• Appendicitis 

• Indigestion 

• Ulcers 

Symptoms: 

• Cramping 

• Sharp or dull pain 

• Nausea or vomiting 

• Bloating 

Prevention: 

• Healthy diet 

• Good hygiene 

• Avoid overeating 

Primary Treatment: 

• Observe and record pain location and type 

• Give pain relief (if prescribed) 

• Refer for proper diagnosis 

11. Fibroid 

Definition:
Noncancerous tumors that grow in the uterus. 

Causes: 

• Unknown, but linked to estrogen levels 

• Family history 

Symptoms: 

• Heavy menstrual bleeding 

• Pelvic pain 

• Frequent urination 

• Abdominal swelling 

Prevention: 

• No known prevention, but regular check-ups help early detection 

Primary Treatment: 

• Pain relief 

• Monitor size 

• Refer to gynecologist 

12. Appendicitis 

Definition:
Inflammation of the appendix, a small organ attached to the intestine. 

Causes: 

• Blockage or infection of the appendix 

Symptoms: 

• Pain starting around the navel, shifting to lower right side 

• Nausea or vomiting 

• Fever 

• Loss of appetite 

Prevention: 

• Not preventable, but early treatment prevents rupture 

Primary Treatment: 

• Do not give food or drink 

• Refer urgently to hospital 

• Monitor vital signs 

13. Ovarian Cyst 

Definition:
Fluid-filled sac on the ovary. 

Causes: 

• Hormonal imbalance 

• Endometriosis 

• Pregnancy 

Symptoms: 

• Lower abdominal pain 

• Bloating 

• Irregular menstruation 

Prevention: 

• Routine pelvic exams 

• Birth control pills may prevent new cysts 

Primary Treatment: 

• Pain management 

• Refer for ultrasound 

• Surgical removal if large or painful 

14. Family Planning 

Definition:
Methods used by couples to control the number and spacing of children. 

Types: 

• Natural methods (calendar, withdrawal) 

• Barrier methods (condoms) 

• Hormonal methods (pills, injectables, implants) 

• Intrauterine devices (IUDs) 

• Permanent methods (tubal ligation, vasectomy) 

Causes for use: 

• To prevent unplanned pregnancy 

• For child spacing 

• Health reasons 

Symptoms (Side effects may include): 

• Weight changes 

• Menstrual irregularities 

• Headaches (with hormonal methods) 

Prevention of complications: 

• Counseling before method selection 

• Regular follow-up 

Primary Treatment: 

• Provide information and options,  

• Assist with insertion (for IUD/implant under supervision) 

• Refer complications to family planning clinic 

15. Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) 

Definition:
Hypertension is a condition where the force of the blood against the artery walls is consistently too high. 

Causes: 

• Poor diet (high salt intake) 

• Lack of physical activity 

• Obesity 

• Stress 

• Family history 

• Kidney disease 

Symptoms: 

• Often no symptoms (“silent killer”) 

• Headaches 

• Blurred vision 

• Chest pain 

• Dizziness 

Prevention: 

• Eat a balanced, low-salt diet 

• Exercise regularly 

• Maintain a healthy weight 

• Avoid alcohol and smoking 

Primary Treatment: 

1.Monitor blood pressure regularly 2. Administer Prescribed antihypertensives 

3. Encourage lifestyle changes 4. Refer to a medical Doctor for ongoing care 

16. Diabetes Mellitus 

Definition:
A metabolic disorder where the body cannot properly use glucose due to lack of insulin or insulin resistance. 

Causes: 

• Type 1: Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells 

• Type 2: Poor lifestyle, obesity, genetics 

• Gestational: During pregnancy 

Symptoms: 

• Excessive thirst and urination 

• Fatigue 

• Blurred vision 

• Weight loss 

• Slow wound healing 

Prevention: 

• Healthy diet 

• Regular exercise 

• Weight management 

• Regular blood sugar checks 

Primary Treatment: 

• Monitor blood glucose 

• Administer insulin or oral hypoglycemics as prescribed 

• Encourage healthy diet 

• Refer for diabetic education 

17. Asthma Attack 

Definition:
A sudden worsening of asthma symptoms caused by tightening of muscles around airways. 

Causes: 

• Allergens (dust, smoke, pollen) 

• Cold air 

• Exercise 

• Stress 

• Respiratory infections 

Symptoms: 

• Shortness of breath 

• Wheezing 

• Chest tightness 

• Coughing, especially at night 

Prevention: 

• Avoid known triggers 

• Take asthma medications regularly 

• Use inhalers properly 

Primary Treatment: 

• Sit the person upright 

• Use a rescue inhaler (Salbutamol) 

• Loosen tight clothing 

• Seek emergency help if no improvement 

18. Sepsis 

Definition:
A life-threatening condition caused by the body's extreme response to infection. 

Causes: 

• Untreated infections (lungs, urinary tract, wounds, etc.) 

• Weak immune system 

• Surgical complications 

Symptoms: 

• High fever or very low temperature 

• Rapid heart rate 

• Confusion 

• Difficulty breathing 

• Low blood pressure 

Prevention: 

• Prompt treatment of infections 

• Good hygiene and wound care 

• Timely use of antibiotics 

Primary Treatment: 

• Monitor vital signs 

• Start IV fluids if available 

• Administer antibiotics (only with doctor’s order) 

• Refer immediately to hospital 

19. Dehydration 

Definition:
A condition where the body loses more fluids than it takes in. 

Causes: 

• Diarrhea and vomiting 

• Excessive sweating 

• Fever 

• Inadequate fluid intake 

Symptoms: 

• Dry mouth and skin 

• Dizziness 

• Low urine output 

• Rapid heartbeat 

• Confusion 

Prevention: 

• Drink plenty of fluids 

• Treat underlying illnesses promptly 

• Encourage fluid intake in hot weather 

Primary Treatment: 

• Give oral rehydration solution (ORS) 

• Monitor vital signs 

• Encourage small sips of water frequently 

• Refer severe cases 

20. Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident) 

Definition:
A stroke happens when blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted, causing brain cells to die. 

Causes: 

• Blocked blood vessels (ischemic stroke) 

• Burst blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke) 

• High blood pressure 

• Atherosclerosis 

Symptoms: (Use FAST test) 

• Face drooping 

• Arm weakness 

• Speech difficulty 

• Time to call for help 

Prevention: 

• Control blood pressure 

• Healthy diet and exercise 

• Avoid smoking and alcohol 

• Regular health checkups 

Primary Treatment: 

• Keep patient calm and safe 

• Lay patient on their side if unconscious 

• Monitor airway and breathing 

• Urgently refer to hospital 

21. Snake Bite / Poisoning 

Definition:
Injury or illness caused by venom injected from a snake or toxic substances. 

Causes: 

• Snake bites (venomous) 

• Ingestion of chemicals or expired drugs 

• Inhalation of toxic fumes 

Symptoms (Snake bite): 

• Pain and swelling at the bite site 

• Nausea 

• Weakness 

• Difficulty breathing 

• Blurred vision 

Prevention: 

• Wear protective boots in bushy areas 

• Avoid unknown substances 

• Store chemicals safely 

Primary Treatment: 

• Keep victim calm and still 

• Immobilize the affected limb 

• Do not cut or suck the bite 

• Take to hospital immediately 

• For poisoning, identify the substance and refer urgently 

22. Convulsion (Seizures) 

Definition:
Sudden, uncontrolled electrical activity in the brain causing physical shaking or unconsciousness. 

Causes: 

• Epilepsy 

• High fever (especially in children) 

• Head injury 

• Brain infection 

Symptoms: 

• Jerking movements 

• Stiffening of body 

• Loss of consciousness 

• Foaming at the mouth 

Prevention: 

• Manage fevers in children 

• Avoid head injury 

• Take prescribed medications for epilepsy 

Primary Treatment: 

• Clear area of harmful objects 

• Do not restrain the person 

• Place on side to prevent choking 

• Monitor until it stops 

• Refer if seizure lasts more than 5 minutes 

23. Burns 

Definition:
Tissue damage caused by heat, chemicals, electricity, or radiation. 

Causes: 

• Hot liquids or fire 

• Electrical contact 

• Sunburn 

• Acid or chemical spills 

Symptoms: 

• Redness 

• Blisters 

• Peeling skin 

• Pain or numbness 

Prevention: 

• Handle hot objects carefully 

• Keep chemicals out of reach 

• Educate on fire safety 

Primary Treatment: 

• Cool the burn under clean, running water 

• Cover with sterile dressing 

• Do not apply oil or cream 

• Refer serious burns (deep, large, or facial burns) 

24. Wound Dressing 

Definition:
The cleaning and covering of a wound to promote healing and prevent infection. 

Causes (of wounds): 

• Cuts 

• Surgical procedures 

• Accidents 

Symptoms (Infected wounds): 

• Redness and swelling 

• Pain 

• Pus or discharge 

• Fever 

Prevention: 

• Clean wounds properly 

• Use sterile materials 

• Educate on hygiene 

Primary Treatment: 

• Wash hands 

• Clean wound with antiseptic 

• Apply sterile dressing 

• Monitor for infection 

• Change dressing regularly 

25. Gastroenteritis (Diarrhea and Vomiting) 

Definition:
Inflammation of the stomach and intestines, usually caused by infection, resulting in diarrhea and vomiting. 

Causes: 

• Contaminated food or water 

• Viral or bacterial infection 

• Poor hygiene 

Symptoms: 

• Frequent watery stool 

• Vomiting 

• Fever 

• Abdominal cramps 

• Dehydration 

Prevention: 

• Proper handwashing 

• Safe food handling 

• Clean water supply 

Primary Treatment: 

• Give ORS (oral rehydration solution) 

• Monitor hydration status 

• Avoid dairy and fatty foods 

• Refer if symptoms persist 

26. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) 

Definition:
An infection in any part of the urinary system, most commonly the bladder. 

Causes: 

• Bacteria (especially E. coli) 

• Poor hygiene 

• Holding urine for long periods 

Symptoms: 

• Burning sensation while urinating 

• Frequent urge to urinate 

• Cloudy or bloody urine 

• Lower abdominal pain 

Prevention: 

• Drink plenty of water 

• Wipe from front to back after using toilet 

• Urinate after intercourse 

Primary Treatment: 

• Encourage fluid intake 

• Administer prescribed antibiotics 

• Educate on hygiene 

• Refer if severe 

27. Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH) 

Definition:
Excessive bleeding (>500ml) after childbirth. 

Causes: 

• Uterine atony (weak uterus) 

• Retained placenta 

• Vaginal tears 

Symptoms: 

• Heavy bleeding 

• Dizziness 

• Low blood pressure 

• Rapid pulse 

• Weakness 

Prevention: 

• Proper management during delivery 

• Skilled birth attendants 

• Oxytocin after delivery 

Primary Treatment: 

• Massage the uterus 

• Administer oxytocin if available 

• Monitor vital signs 

• Refer immediately to hospital 

28. Tuberculosis (TB) 

Definition:
A bacterial infection (usually in the lungs) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

Causes: 

• Inhalation of airborne droplets from infected person 

Symptoms: 

• Chronic cough (with blood) 

• Fever and night sweats 

• Weight loss 

• Chest pain 

Prevention: 

• Early detection and treatment 

• BCG vaccination 

• Cover mouth when coughing 

Primary Treatment: 

• Isolate the patient 

• Encourage cough etiquette 

• Refer to TB clinic for treatment (DOTS) 

29. COVID-19 / Respiratory Infection 

Definition:
A viral respiratory infection caused by coronavirus or other viruses. 

Causes: 

• Spread through respiratory droplets 

• Close contact with infected individuals 

Symptoms: 

• Fever 

• Cough 

• Shortness of breath 

• Fatigue 

• Loss of taste/smell 

Prevention: 

• Hand hygiene 

• Wearing masks 

• Vaccination 

• Social distancing 

Primary Treatment: 

• Isolate the patient 

• Monitor oxygen level 

• Administer paracetamol for fever   . Refer if symptoms worsen 

30. Mental Health Issues (Depression, Anxiety, Confusion) 

Definition:
Mental health problems that affect mood, thinking, and behavior. 

Causes: 

• Stress 

• Trauma or abuse 

• Substance use 

• Medical illness 

Symptoms: 

• Depression: Sadness, hopelessness, fatigue 

• Anxiety: Excessive worry, restlessness, rapid heartbeat 

• Confusion: Disorientation, memory loss 

Prevention: 

• Early emotional support 

• Stress management 

• Encourage open communication 

Primary Treatment: 

• Provide a calm, safe environment 

• Listen with empathy 

• Refer to mental health professionals 

• Monitor for suicidal thoughts (for depression) 

31. Anemia 

Definition:
A condition where there is a lower than normal number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. 

Causes: 

• Iron deficiency 

• Poor nutrition 

• Blood loss (e.g., heavy menstruation) 

• Chronic diseases (e.g., kidney disease) 

• Malaria or worm infestation 

Symptoms: 

• Pale skin and mucous membranes 

• Fatigue 

• Dizziness 

• Shortness of breath 

• Cold hands and feet 

Prevention: 

• Eat iron-rich foods (beans, meat, green vegetables) 

• Treat infections promptly 

• Deworm regularly 

• Iron supplements for at-risk groups (e.g., pregnant women) 

Primary Treatment: 

• Encourage iron-rich diet 

• Administer iron supplements (if prescribed) 

• Treat underlying cause   . Refer severe cases to hospital 

32. Jaundice 

Definition:
A yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes due to high levels of bilirubin in the blood. 

Causes: 

• Liver diseases (e.g., hepatitis, cirrhosis) 

• Blocked bile ducts 

• Newborn jaundice 

• Malaria 

• Sickle cell crisis 

Symptoms: 

• Yellow eyes and skin 

• Dark urine 

• Pale stool 

• Fatigue 

• Abdominal pain (in some cases) 

Prevention: 

• Vaccinate against hepatitis 

• Avoid alcohol abuse 

• Practice good hygiene 

• Prompt treatment of infections 

Primary Treatment: 

• Identify and treat the underlying cause 

• Encourage hydration 

• Monitor for worsening symptoms 

• Refer to hospital if severe 

33. Ear Infections (Otitis Media/Externa) 

Definition:
Infection of the inner (media) or outer (externa) ear, common in children. 

Causes: 

• Bacteria or viruses 

• Water trapped in the ear 

• Cold or respiratory infection 

• Allergies 

Symptoms: 

• Ear pain 

• Fever 

• Ear discharge 

• Hearing difficulty 

• Tugging at the ear (in children) 

Prevention: 

• Keep ears dry and clean 

• Treat colds and flu early 

• Avoid inserting objects into the ear 

Primary Treatment: 

• Clean external ear gently 

• Pain relief with paracetamol 

• Warm compress 

• Refer to clinic for antibiotics if infection is suspected 

34. Sore Throat / Tonsillitis 

Definition:
Inflammation of the throat or tonsils due to infection. 

Causes: 

• Viral or bacterial infections 

• Allergies 

• Irritants (smoke, dry air) 

• Streptococcal bacteria (strep throat) 

Symptoms: 

• Painful swallowing 

• Red, swollen tonsils 

• Fever 

• Headache 

• Swollen lymph nodes 

Prevention: 

• Practice good hygiene 

• Avoid sharing utensils 

• Cover mouth when coughing/sneezing 

Primary Treatment: 

• Gargle with warm salt water 

• Give paracetamol for pain and fever 

• Encourage fluids 

• Refer for antibiotics if bacterial infection is suspected 

35. Skin Rashes / Allergies 

Definition:
Skin reactions due to irritation, infection, or allergic responses. 

Causes: 

• Allergens (foods, soaps, medications) 

• Infections (fungal, bacterial, viral) 

• Heat or sweating 

• Insect bites 

Symptoms: 

• Redness 

• Itching 

• Swelling 

• Blisters or bumps 

Prevention: 

• Avoid known allergens 

• Maintain good hygiene 

• Wear breathable clothing 

• Use mild soaps 

Primary Treatment: 

• Wash area with clean water 

• Apply soothing creams or antihistamines 

• Avoid scratching 

• Refer if rash worsens or spreads 

36. Scabies 

Definition:
A contagious skin infestation caused by tiny mites that burrow into the skin. 

Causes: 

• Close contact with an infected person 

• Sharing clothes, bedding, or towels 

Symptoms: 

• Intense itching (especially at night) 

• Small red bumps or blisters 

• Rash between fingers, wrists, elbows, waist 

Prevention: 

• Avoid sharing personal items 

• Wash bedding/clothes in hot water 

• Treat all household members if one is infected 

Primary Treatment: 

• Apply scabicide cream or lotion (e.g., permethrin) 

• Wash bedding and clothing 

• Repeat treatment after 1 week 

• Refer for proper diagnosis and medication 

37. Chickenpox / Measles 

Definition:
Highly contagious viral infections common in children. 

Causes: 

• Chickenpox: Varicella-zoster virus 

• Measles: Measles virus 

Symptoms (Chickenpox): 

• Itchy red spots that turn into blisters 

• Fever 

• Fatigue 

Symptoms (Measles): 

• High fever 

• Cough, runny nose, red eyes 

• Rash starting from the face and spreading 

Prevention: 

• Vaccination 

• Avoid contact with infected individuals 

• Isolate infected persons 

Primary Treatment: 

• Treat fever with paracetamol 

• Calamine lotion for itching (chickenpox) 

• Encourage fluids and rest   . Refer to hospital if complications arise 

38. Malnutrition 

Definition:
A condition where the body does not get enough nutrients to function properly. 

Causes: 

• Poor diet 

• Poverty 

• Disease (e.g., diarrhea, HIV) 

• Poor feeding practices in infants 

Symptoms: 

• Weight loss 

• Weakness 

• Swollen belly (kwashiorkor) 

• Dry skin, hair changes 

Prevention: 

• Balanced diet 

• Nutrition education for parents 

• Early weaning with nutritious foods 

Primary Treatment: 

• Feed with high-protein, high-calorie meals 

• Use Ready-to-Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) 

• Treat underlying infections 

• Refer severe cases to nutrition centers 

39. Toothache / Dental Abscess 

Definition:
Pain in or around a tooth due to decay or infection. 

Causes: 

• Tooth decay 

• Gum disease 

• Cracked teeth 

• Poor oral hygiene 

Symptoms: 

• Persistent tooth pain 

• Swelling 

• Fever (in abscess) 

• Bad breath 

Prevention: 

• Brush teeth twice daily 

• Reduce sugar intake 

• Regular dental check-ups 

Primary Treatment: 

• Rinse with warm salt water 

• Apply cold compress 

• Give pain relief 

• Refer to dental clinic 

40. Constipation 

Definition:
Difficulty in passing stools or infrequent bowel movements. 

Causes: 

• Low-fiber diet 

• Dehydration 

• Lack of exercise 

• Medications 

Symptoms: 

• Hard, dry stools 

• Abdominal bloating 

• Painful bowel movements 

• Incomplete evacuation 

Prevention: 

• Eat high-fiber foods 

• Drink plenty of water 

• Exercise regularly 

Primary Treatment: 

• Encourage fluid intake 

• Give mild laxatives (if prescribed) 

• Add fiber to diet 

• Refer if symptoms persist 

41. Menstrual Disorders 

Definition:
Irregularities in the menstrual cycle including painful or heavy periods. 

Causes: 

• Hormonal imbalance 

• Fibroids 

• Stress 

• Poor nutrition 

Symptoms: 

• Irregular cycle 

• Excessive bleeding 

• Severe abdominal pain 

• Missed periods 

Prevention: 

• Healthy diet and weight 

• Manage stress 

• Regular check-ups 

Primary Treatment: 

• Warm compress for pain 

• Pain relievers (paracetamol, ibuprofen) 

• Iron supplements for heavy bleeding 

• Refer for medical evaluation if persistent 

42. High Fever (Pyrexia) 

Definition:
A body temperature higher than 37.5°C, often due to infection. 

Causes: 

• Malaria 

• Infection (bacterial or viral) 

• Typhoid 

• TB 

Symptoms: 

• Hot skin 

• Sweating 

• Chills 

• Weakness 

Prevention: 

• Vaccination 

• Treat infections early 

• Maintain hygiene 

Primary Treatment: 

• Monitor temperature 

• Give paracetamol 

• Sponge with lukewarm water 

• Refer if persistent or very high 

43. Bites and Stings 

Definition:
Injuries from animals, insects, or reptiles that may introduce venom or infection. 

Causes: 

• Dogs, snakes, insects (bees, mosquitoes) 

• Contact with contaminated surfaces 

Symptoms: 

• Pain or swelling at site 

• Redness 

• Allergic reactions 

• Bleeding or wound 

Prevention: 

• Wear protective clothing 

• Avoid wild animals 

• Use insect repellents 

Primary Treatment: 

• Clean the bite area 

• Apply antiseptic 

• Monitor for allergic reaction 

• Refer if severe (snake bites or deep wounds) 

44. Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) 

Definition:
Skin injuries caused by prolonged pressure, especially in immobile patients. 

Causes: 

• Constant pressure on one area 

• Poor circulation 

• Friction or moisture 

Symptoms: 

• Red, swollen areas 

• Blisters or open sores 

• Painful wounds 

• Skin breakdown 

Prevention: 

• Reposition patient regularly 

• Use soft bedding 

• Keep skin clean and dry 

Primary Treatment: 

• Clean wound gently 

• Apply dressing 

• Encourage mobility 

• Refer for advanced wound care 

45. Foreign Body in Nose, Ear, or Throat 

Definition:
An object stuck in a child’s nose, ear, or throat that can cause discomfort or blockage. 

Causes: 

• Children inserting objects (beads, food) 

• Accidental inhalation or swallowing 

Symptoms: 

• Pain or discomfort 

• Nosebleed 

• Difficulty breathing or swallowing 

• Discharge or swelling 

Prevention: 

• Keep small objects out of reach of children 

• Educate caregivers 

Primary Treatment: 

• Do not attempt deep removal 

• Keep patient calm 

• Refer immediately to ENT clinic or hospital